*Represents the articles that are included in this review.
Akhtar-Danesh, N., Baumann, A., & Cordingley, L. (2008). Q-methodology in nursing research: a promising method for the study of subjectivity.
Western journal of nursing research, 30(6), 759–773.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0193945907312979
* Alkhateeb, H., Al Hamad, M., & Mustafawi, E. (2020). Revealing stakeholders’ perspectives on educational language policy in higher education through Q-methodology.
Current Issues in Language Planning, 21(4), 415–433.
https://doi.org/10.1080/14664208.2020.1741237
* Alkhateeb, H., & Alshaboul, Y. (2021). Teachers’ understanding of the importance of students’ mother tongue(s) in Qatar’s international English-medium primary schools: findings from Q method research.
Current Issues in Language Planning, 23(1), 37–56.
https://doi.org/10.1080/14664208.2021.1925456
* Alkhateeb, H., & Bouherar, S. (2023). Sustainability and educational language policy in Arab higher education: findings from Q research.
Current Issues in Language Planning, 24(5), 573–595.
https://doi.org/10.1080/14664208.2022.2155925
* Bonar, G., Slaughter, Y., Keary, A., & Davies, T. (2024). Supporting students with English as an additional language during emergency remote teaching: a Q methodology study.
The Australian Educational Researcher, 52, 1065–1086.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13384-024-00753-w
Brown, S. R. (1980). Political subjectivity: Applications of Q methodology in political science. Yale University Press.
* Camenzuli, R., Lundberg, A., & Gauci, P. (2022). Collective teachers’ beliefs about multilingualism in Maltese primary education.
International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 26(4), 379–394.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2022.2114787
* Caruso, M., & Fraschini, N. (2021). A Q methodology study into vision of Italian L2 university students: An Australian perspective.
The Modern Language Journal, 105(2), 552–568.
https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12713
Darling-Hammond, L., Flook, L., Cook-Harvey, C., Barron, B., & Osher, D. (2019). Implications for educational practice of the science of learning and development.
Applied Developmental Science.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10888691.2018.1537791
* Deignan, T., & Morton, T. (2022). The challenges of English medium instruction for subject lecturers: A shared viewpoint.
ELT Journal, 76(2), 208–217.
https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccab084
Dieteren, C. M., Patty, N. J., Reckers-Droog, V. T., & Van Exel, J. (2023). Methodological choices in applications of Q methodology: A systematic literature review.
Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 7(1), 100404.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2023.100404
* Ding, X., Liu, Y., & Peng, J. E. (2023). Straddling burnout and resilience: a Q methodology study among high school EFL teachers.
Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 46(2), 485–502.
https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2023.2193171
Dryzek, J. S., & Holmes, L. (2002). Post-communist democratization: Political discourses across thirteen countries. Cambridge University Press.
Ernest, J. M. (2001). An alternate approach to studying beliefs about developmentally appropriate practices.
Contemporary Issues in Early Childhood, 2(3), 337–353.
https://doi.org/10.2304/ciec.2001.2.3.6
Finchilescu, G., & Muthal, S. (2019). Q methodology: Patterns of subjectivity in academic misconduct. In S. Laher, A. Fynn, & S. Kramer (Eds.),
Transforming Research Methods in the Social Sciences: Case Studies from South Africa (pp. 130–148). Wits University Press.
https://doi.org/10.18772/22019032750.14
Flick, U. (2023). An introduction to qualitative research (7th ed.). Sage Publications.
* Fraschini, N., & Park, H. (2021). Anxiety in language teachers: Exploring the variety of perceptions with Q methodology.
Foreign Language Annals, 54(2), 341–364.
https://doi.org/10.1111/flan.12527
* Fraschini, N., & Park, H. (2022). A Q methodology study to explore Korean as a second language undergraduate student-teachers’ anxiety.
International Journal of Educational Research Open, 3, 100132.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedro.2022.100132
* Gyenes, A. (2021). Student perceptions of critical thinking in EMI programs at Japanese universities: A Q-methodology study.
Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 54, Article e101053.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeap.2021.101053
Irie, K., Ryan, S., & Mercer, S. (2018). Using Q methodology to investigate pre-service EFL teachers’ mindsets about teaching competences.
Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 8(3), 575–598.
https://doi.org/10.14746/ssllt.2018.8.3.3
* Jodaei, H., Zareian, G., Amirian, S. M. R., & Adel, S. M. R. (2021). The interplay of teacher motivation and learner motivation: A Q method study.
Current Psychology, 40, 1696–1710.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-018-0091-5
* Kim, S. E., Fraschini, N., & Park, H. (2023). Defining competencies for training non-native Korean speaking teachers: A Q methodology approach.
International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 1-26.
https://doi.org/10.1515/iral-2023-0200
Kirschbaum, M. A., Barnett, T., & Cross, M. (2024). Combining Q methodology and interviews using mixed methods integration: an exemplar study exploring over-the-counter codeine misuse in Australia.
International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 28(2), 147–161.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13645579.2024.2304939
* Kruk, M., Pawlak, M., Elahi Shirvan, M., Taherian, T., & Yazdanmehr, E. (2022). Potential sources of foreign language learning boredom: A Q methodology study.
Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 12(1), 37–58.
https://doi.org/10.14746/ssllt.2022.12.1.3
* Lu, J., Wang, Y., Shen, Q., & Gao, X. (2022). Investment in learning Chinese by international students studying Chinese as a second language (CSL).
Sustainability, 14(23), 15664.
https://doi.org/10.3390/su142315664
* Lu, X., & Geng, Z. (2022). Faith or path? Profiling the motivations of multilingual Chinese as a foreign language teachers using Q methodology.
Language Teaching Research, 29(3), 1345–1371.
https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688221099079
* Lu, X., Zheng, Y., & Ren, W. (2019). Motivation for learning Spanish as a foreign language: The case of Chinese L1 speakers at university level.
Círculo de Lingüística Aplicada a La Comunicación, 79, 79–98.
https://doi.org/10.5209/clac.65649
* Lu, X., Zou, X., & Tao, J. (2020). Spanish language teachers’ pedagogical beliefs in Chinese universities.
Círculo de Lingüística Aplicada a La Comunicación, 84, 41–53.
https://doi.org/10.5209/clac.71994
* Lu, Y., & Xiong, T. (2023). The attitudes of high school students and teachers toward mobile apps for learning English: A Q methodology study.
Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 8(1), 100555.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2023.100555
* Mao, F., Gong, J., Huang, J., & Zhu, Y. (2024). Positive psychology probe: Assessing impact factors on CFL learners’ Chinese language learning through the EMPATHICS model and Q methodology.
System, 126, Article e103500.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2024.103500
Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., Altman, D. G., & the Prisma Group. (2009). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement.
PLoS Medicine, 6(7), Article e1000097.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000097
Newman, M., & Gough, D. (2020). Systematic reviews in educational research: Methodology, perspectives and application. In O. Zawacki-Richter, M. Kerres, S. Bedenlier, M. Bond, & K. Buntins (Eds.), Systematic reviews in educational research: Methodology, perspectives and application (pp. 3–22). Springer VS.
Norris, J. M., & Ortega, L. (2000). Effectiveness of L2 instruction: A research synthesis and quantitative meta-analysis.
Language Learning, 50(3), 417–528.
https://doi.org/10.1111/0023-8333.00136
* Peng, J. E., & Wu, L. (2024). Motivational profiles of Chinese university students majoring in Spanish: a comparative study.
Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 45(6), 1938–1955.
https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2022.2035740
Popay, J., Roberts, H., Sowden, A., Petticrew, M., Arai, L., Rodgers, M., Britten, N., Roen, K., & Duffy, S. (2006). Guidance on the conduct of narrative synthesis in systematic reviews. University of Lancaster.
* Qi, Y., & Othman, R. B. (2023). Investigating Chinese tertiary EFL teachers’ beliefs and practices in the application of learning management systems using Q methodology.
Arab World English Journal, 14(4), 111–130.
https://doi.org/10.24093/awej/vol14no4.7
* Qin, L., Ouyang, X., Gao, Y., & Hennebry-Leung, M. (2024). Emotional and cognitive dissonance of teachers of Japanese as a foreign language towards technology-mediated language teaching curriculum: A perezhivanie perspective.
The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 33, 889–900.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-023-00799-x
* Raksawong, K., Thumvichit, A., & Solhi, M. (2024). Teachers as silencers: A Q methodology study into teachers’ characteristics contributing to unwillingness to communicate among foreign language learners.
Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 1–16.
https://doi.org/10.1080/17501229.2024.2412773
Riazi, A. M., & Amini Farsani, M. (2024). Mixed-methods research in applied linguistics: Charting the progress through the second decade of the twenty-first century.
Language Teaching, 57(2), 143–182.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444823000332
Riazi, A. M., Rezvani, R., & Ghanbar, H. (2023). Trustworthiness in L2 writing research: A review and analysis of qualitative articles in the Journal of Second Language Writing.
Research Methods in Applied Linguistics, 2(3), 100065.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rmal.2023.100065
Shemmings, D., & Ellingsen, I. T. (2012). Using Q methodology in qualitative interviews. In J. F. Gubrium, J. A. Holstein, A. B. Marvasti, & K. D. McKinney (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of interview research: The complexity of the craft (2nd ed., pp. 415–426). Sage.
* Slaughter, Y., Bonar, G., & Keary, A. (2021). The role of membership viewpoints in shaping language teacher associations: A Q methodology analysis.
TESOL Quarterly, 56(1), 281–307.
https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.3068
* Slaughter, Y., Lo Bianco, J., Aliani, R., Cross, R., & Hajek, J. (2019). Language programming in rural and regional Victoria.
Australian Review of Applied Linguistics, 42(3), 274–300.
https://doi.org/10.1075/aral.18030.sla
* Solhi, M., & Thumvichit, A. (2024). Dissecting subjective L2 (un)willingness to communicate among EFL learners: A Q methodology study.
Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 1–16.
https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2024.2349802
Stenner, P., & Stainton Rogers, R. (2004). Q methodology and qualiquantology: the example of discriminating between emotions. In Z. Todd, B. Nerlich, S. McKeown, & D. D. Clarke (Eds.), Mixing Methods in Psychology: The Integration of Qualitative and Quantitative Methods in Theory and Practice (pp. 101-120). Psychology Press.
Stephenson, W. (1953). The study of behavior: Q technique and its methodology. Chicago University Press.
Stephenson, W. (1968). Perspectives in psychology: XXVI. Consciousness out subjectivity in. The Psychological Record, 18(4), 499–501.
Stephenson, W. (1978). Concourse theory of communication. Communication, 3, 21–40.
Stone, T. E., Maguire, J., Kang, S. J., & Cha, C. (2017). Practical Issues of Conducting a Q Methodology Study: Lessons Learned From a Cross-cultural Study. ANS.
Advances in nursing science, 40(3), 289–297.
https://doi.org/10.1097/ANS.0000000000000164
* Thumvichit, A. (2022). Unfolding the subjectivity of foreign language enjoyment in online classes: A Q methodology study.
Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 45(7), 2427–2444.
https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2022.2050917
* Thumvichit, A. (2023). Understanding emotion-regulation strategies among foreign language teachers in response to classroom stressors: Findings from a Q methodology study.
Social Psychology of Education, 26, 1593–1620.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-023-09809-8
* Thumvichit, A. (2024). Enjoyment in language teaching: A study into EFL teachers’ subjectivities.
IRAL–International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 62(2), 623–649.
https://doi.org/10.1515/iral-2022-0087
* Thumvichit, A., & Phanthaphoommee, N. (2024). From basic care to beyond: A Q methodology study into the English communication needs among Thai caregivers of foreign older adults.
Journal of Migration and Health, 10, 100253.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmh.2024.100253
* Thumvichit, A., Tangkiengsirisin, S., & Vathanalaoha, K. (2024). Making sense of collective leadership in English teacher associations: Insights from Thailand TESOL’s committees.
English in Education, 58(4), 346–362.
https://doi.org/10.1080/04250494.2024.2358752
* Wang, L., Chen, G., & Liu, S. (2024). Profiling the multifaceted identities among multilingual Tibetan college students learning Chinese and English in Xizang.
Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 1–19.
https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2024.2391065
* Wang, S., & Wang, Y. (2024). Exploring complex multilingual motivation types among Chinese students majoring in dual foreign languages: A Q method study.
Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 1–19.
https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2024.2384493
* Wang, Y., Nikitina, L., Kaur, J., & Furuoka, F. (2022). Developing and piloting a Q-sample on Chinese language learners’ epistemic beliefs.
Journal of Language and Education, 8(3), 119–132.
https://doi.org/10.17323/jle.2022.13590
Watts, S., & Stenner, P. (2012). Doing Q methodological research: Theory, method & interpretation. Sage.
* Wu, P., & Wang, Y. (2021). Investigating business English teachers’ belief about online assessment: Q methodology conducted during COVID-19 period.
The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 30(6), 621–630.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-021-00604-7
* Wu, X., & Forbes, K. (2022). Multilingual identity in schools: A Q methodological study with Chinese LOTE-as-L3 learners in international and public high school contexts.
Journal of Language, Identity & Education, 24(2), 361–377.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15348458.2022.2134138
* Wu, X., & Forbes, K. (2023). Contextualising the temporal dimension in multilingual identity construction: A longitudinal Q methodological study with Chinese LOTE-learning public high school students.
System, 116, 103090.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2023.103090
* Yılmaz Virlan, A., & Tomak, B. (2024). A Q method study on Turkish EFL learners’ perspectives on the use of AI tools for writing: Benefits, concerns, and ethics.
Language Teaching Research,
29(7), 3190-3213.
https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688241308836
* Yuan, C., & Lo Bianco, J. (2022). L2 Chinese teachers’ beliefs about engagement strategies for students in Australia: Findings from Q methodology research.
System, 106, 102792.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2022.102792
* Yuan, C., Zhu, Y., & Slaughter, Y. (2024). A Q methodological study into pre-service Chinese as a foreign language (CFL) teachers’ mindsets about teaching competencies.
IRAL–International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching.
https://doi.org/10.1515/iral-2023-0228
* Zheng, Y., Lu, X., & Ren, W. (2019). Profiling Chinese university students’ motivation to learn multiple languages.
Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 40(7), 590–604.
https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2019.1571074
* Zheng, Y., Lu, X., & Ren, W. (2020). Tracking the evolution of Chinese learners’ multilingual motivation through a longitudinal Q methodology.
The Modern Language Journal, 104(4), 781–803.
https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12672