Document Type : research paper

Authors

1 PhD Candidate inTEFL Department of English, Tabriz Branch.Islamic Azad University ,, Tabriz, Iran

2 Associate Professor in TEFL, Department of English, Tabriz Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tabriz, Iran

3 Associate Professor in TEFL .Department of English , Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran

Abstract

Despite all efforts rationalized around the significance of grammar instruction, it remains a contentious issue in the fields of second and foreign language teaching. Grammar teaching requires the design of both implicit and explicit approaches. One of the main features of grammar is English passive voice which is, for various reasons, a difficult subpart of grammar for Iranian EFL learners. This quasi-experimental study was intended to comparatively and empirically investigate the effects and probable differences of Traditional Explicit Instruction (TEI), Implicit Input Enhancement (IIE), and Guided Discovery Method (GDM) on comprehension of passive voice among Iranian EFL learners. To serve the purpose, 70 students from Payam-Nour University of Tabriz were selected and divided into three groups including TEI (N= 23), IIE (N= 25), and GDM (N= 22). The participants were exposed to three different treatments and the pre-test and post-test were used to extract information on the learners’ comprehension. The results of one-way ANCOVA showed that all three teaching approaches had positive effects on the comprehension of passive voice. Meanwhile, the GDM could lead to a better and more efficient contribution compared to the two other instructional techniques. Finally, some pedagogical implications have been presented for EFL teachers, students, and syllabus designers.

Keywords

Adair-Hauck, B., Donato, R., & Cumo Johanssen, P. (2005). Using a storybased approach to teach grammar. In J. L. Shrum & E. W. Glisan (Eds.), Teacher’s handbook: Contextualizing language instruction (3rd ed.) (pp. 189-213). Heinle & Heinle.
Alcaraz, C., & Isabel, M. (2018). Benefits of guided discovery grammar instruction in the EFL classroom. Psychology, 103(1), 1-18. https://core.ac.uk/download/235853475.pdf.
Alfieri, L., Brooks, P. J., Aldrich, N. J., & Tenenbaum, H. R. (2011). Does discovery-based instruction enhance learning? Journal of Educational Psychology, 103(1), 1-13. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0021017.
Akhmarianti, A. (2020). Consciousness raising-based grammar teaching: empowering learner’s metalinguistic awareness in Second Language Acquisition. Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, Proceedings of the Eighth International Conference on English Language and Teaching (ICOELT-8 2020), 579, 242-248. Atlantis Press
SARL. https://www.atlantis-press.com/article/125960930.pdf.
Anderson, J. (2016). Why practice makes perfect sense: The past, present and potential future of the PPP paradigm in language teacher education. English Language Teaching Education and Development (ELTED), 19(1), 14-22. http://www.elted.net/volume-19.html
Andrews, K. L. Z. (2007). The effects of implicit and explicit instruction on simple and complex grammatical structures for adult English language learners. TESL-EJ, 11(2), 1-15.
Ausubel, D. P., Novak, J. D., & Hanesian, H. (1968). Learning by discovery. In D. P. Ausubel, J. D. Novak & H. Hanesian (Eds.), Educational psychology. A cognitive view (2 ed., pp. 519-564). Reinhart & Winston.
Bakhshandeh, S., & Jafari, K. (2018). The effects of input enhancement and explicit instruction on developing Iranian intermediate EFL learners’ explicit knowledge of passive voice. Asian-Pacific Journal of Second and Foreign Language Education, 3(1), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40862-018-0060-4
Bateni, M. (2010). Description of Persian grammatical structure. Amirkabir Publications.
Björnsdóttir, Á. (2016). Focus on Form: Deductive versus inductive techniques in teaching English (Doctoral dissertation). http://hdl.handle.net/1946/25960
Bruner, J. S. (1961). The Act of discovery. Harvard Educational Review, 31,21-32.
Byrne, D. (1976). Teaching oral English. Longman.
Byrne, D. (1986). Teaching oral English new edition. Longman.
Campbell, D. T., & Stanley, J. C. (1966). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research. Rand McNally.
Caprario, M. (2013). Guided discovery grammar instruction: A Review of the literature with original teaching materials (Master’s thesis). https://digitalcollections.sit.edu/ipp_collection/689.
Ciftci, H., & Ozcan, M. (2021). A contrastive analysis of Traditional Grammar Translation Method and Communicative Language Teaching in teaching English grammar and vocabulary. International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET), 8(2), 709-729. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1294310.
Clark, R. E., Kirschner, P. A., & Sweller, J. (2012). Putting students on the path to learning: The case for fully guided instruction. American Educator, 36(1), 5-11. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ971752.
Collins, L., Halter, R., Lightbown, P., & Spada, N. (1999). Time and distribution of time in L2 instruction. TESOL Quarterly, 33(4), 655-80. https://doi.org/10.2307/3587881.
Cook, T., & Campbell, D. T. (1979). Quasi‐experimentation: Design and analysis issues for field settings. Houghton Mifflin.
Cushing, I. (2021). Grammar in schools: politics, policies and pedagogies. English in Education, 54(2), 213-214. https://doi.org/10.1080/04250494.2020.1720490
Dabirmoghadam, M. (2011). Passive in Persian. Linguistics Journal, 3, 31-46.
Darakhani, L., & Rajabi, P. (2022). Guided discovery learning and personality traits: Focusing on speaking confidence. Journal of Language and Translation, 12(1), 223-233. https://doi.org/10.30495/TTLT.2022.689103.
Decoo, W. (1996). The Induction-Deduction Opposition: Ambiguities and Complexities of the Didactic Reality. IRAL International review of applied linguistics in language teaching, 34 (2), 95-118. https://doi.org/10.1515/iral.1996.34.2.95
de Jong, T., & Lazonder, A. W. (2014). The guided discovery learning principle in multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning (2nd Ed) (pp.371-390). Cambridge University Press.
DeKeyser, R. (2003). Implicit and explicit learning. In C. J. Doughty & M. H. Long (Eds.), The handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 313–48). Blackwell.
De Santis, P. (2008). Text enhancement and the acquisition of English verbal inflection “s” by L1 Haitian creole speakers. Applied Language Learning,18, 27-49.
Dhiorbhain, A. N. (2022). A sociocultural rationale for an explicit inductive approach to grammar teaching in L2 teacher education. Teaching Education, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1080/10476210.2022.2118703.
Dornyei, Z. (2007). Research methods in applied linguistics. Oxford University Press.
Doughty, C., & Williams, J. (1998). Pedagogical choices in focus on form. In C. Dought & J. Williams (Eds.), Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (pp. 197-261). Cambridge University Press.
El-Kahlout, Y. A. (2010). The effectiveness of using guided discovery on developing reading comprehension skills for the eleventh graders in Gaza Governorates (master’s thesis). Al-Azhar University-Gaza. https://mobt3ath.com.
Ellis, N. C. (1995). Consciousness in second language acquisition: A review of field studies and laboratory experiments. Language Awareness, 4(3), 123-46. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658416.1995.9959876.
Ellis, R. (1993). Talking shop: Second language acquisition research: How does it help teachers? ELT Journal 47(1), 3-11. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/47.1.3.
Ellis. R. (1994). The study of second language acquisition. Oxford University Press.
Ellis, R. (2002). Grammar teaching – practice or consciousness-raising? In Jack C. Richards & Willy A. Renandya (Eds.), Methodology in language teaching: An anthology of current practice (pp. 167-177). Cambridge University Press.
Ellis, R. (2003). Task-based language learning and teaching. Oxford University Press.
Ellis. R. (Ed.). (2008). The study of second language acquisition. Oxford University Press.
Erfanrad, S., Fazilatfar, M. A., & Maftoon, P. (2020). Systemic-theoretical instruction vs. discovery learning: The case of Iranian EFL learners’ acquisition of grammar. Journal of Modern Research in English Language Studies, 7(1), 45-78. https://doi.org/10.30479/jmrels.2019.11687.1461.
Erlam, R. (2003). The effects of deductive and inductive instruction on the acquisition of direct object pronouns in French as a second language. The Modern Language Journal, 87(2), 242-260. https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-4781.00188.
Ertmer, P.A., & Newby, T.J. (2013). Behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism: Comparing critical features from an instructional design perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 26(2), 43-71. https://doi.org/10.1002/piq.21143.
Fakazli, O. (2021). Current issues in grammar teaching. The Criterion: An International Journal in English, 12(3), 223-239. https://www.thecriterion.com/V12/n3/LL01.pdf.
Gabriel, R. (2009). The efficacy of explicit grammar instruction and its impact on L2 rule learning: A literature
review. http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED509345.pdf.
Gholami, J., & Talebi, Z. (2012). The effects of implicit and explicit feedback on EFL learners’ grammatical accuracy: The case of regular past tense in English. International Journal of Physical and Social Sciences, 2(6), 39-62.
Hadian, B., Tavangar-rizi, M. & Amouzade, M. (2013). A functional analysis of the passive structure in Persian. International Journal of Linguistics, 5(4), 22-37. http://dx.doi.org/10.5296/ijl.v5i4.3681.
Harmer, J. (2007). The practice of English language teaching. Longman.
Hasanvand, M., & Mohammadian, A. (2022). The effects of guided discovery learning on the development of Iranian teenage and adult EFL learners’ syntactic structures. Applied Research on English Language, 11(2), 73-92. https://doi.org/10.22108/are.2022.130652.1781.
Hassanzadeh, M., & Salehizadeh, M. J. (2019). Focus on form options in second language pronunciation instruction: The case of lexical stress. TESOL Journal, 11(2), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesj.486.
Hermann, G. (1969). Learning by discovery: A critical review of studies. Journal of Experimental Education, 38(1), 58-72.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00220973.1969.11011167.
Higgs, T., & Clifford, R. (1982). The push toward communication. In T. Higgs (Ed.), Curriculum, competence and the foreign language teacher (pp. 57-79). National Textbook Company.
Himmatova, N. N. (2023). Psychological Aspects of Learning a Foreign Language. Spanish Journal of Innovation and Integrity, 13, 1-6. http://eprints.umsida.ac.id/10954/.
Izumi, S. (2000). Promoting noticing and SLA: An empirical study of the effects of output and input enhancement on ESL relativization (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Georgetown University.
Izumi, S. (2002). Output, input enhancement, and the noticing hypothesis: An experimental study on ESL relativization. SSLA, 24, 541-577. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263102004023.
Janssen, F. J., Westbroek, H. B., & van Driel, J. H. (2014). How to make guided discovery learning practical for student teachers. Instructional Science, 42(1), 67-90. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-013-9296-z.
Jourdenais, R. (1998). The effects of textual enhancement on the acquisition of the Spanish preterit and imperfect (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Georgetown University.
Kalanzadeh, G. A., Jafarigohar, M., Ghonsooly, B., & Soleimani, H. (2018). Mixed Effects of Input Enhancement, Explicit Instruction, Corrective Feedback, and Pushed Output in an Input-Output Mapping Practice. Journal of Research in Applied Linguistics, 9(1), 57-82.
Khalifeh, A., Bavali, M., & Rassaei, E. (2022). Evaluating the impact of a flipped, a traditional, and an online course on grammar knowledge development and content coverage: Flipped class’s perception in focus. Journal of Modern Research in English Language Studies, 9(3), 101-129. https://doi.org/10.30479/jmrels.2022.16282.1970.
Khayampoor, A. (2010). Persian grammar. Tabriz University Press.
Kinniburgh, J. C. (2022). Developing the higher-order thinking skills of middleschool Geography students using Geographic Information Systems (GIS): a study of direct instruction and guided discovery pedagogies and the impact of additional multimedia scaffolding and teacher modelling pedagogies and the impact of additional multimedia scaffolding and teacher modelling (Doctoral dissertation). Macquarie University.
Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E. (2006). Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of
constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist, 41(2), 75-86. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep4102_1.
Krashen, S. (1981). Second language acquisition and second language learning. Pergamon.
Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Pergamon.
Kuklthau, C. C., Maniotes, L. K., & Caspari, A. K. (2007). Guided inquiry: Learning in the 21st century. Libraries Unlimited.
Lee, S. K. (2007). Effects of textual enhancement and topic familiarity on Korean EFL students’ reading comprehension and learning of passive form. Language Learning Journal, 57(1), 87-118. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2007.00400.x.
Lefrancois, G. R. (Ed.). (1997). Psychology for teachers. Wadsworth.
Lehrer, R. (1986). Logo as a strategy for developing thinking? Educational Psychologist, 21(1-2), 121-137. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.1986.9653027.
Leow, R. (1997). The effects of input enhancement and text length on adult L2 readers’ comprehension and intake in second language acquisition. Applied Language Learning, 8, 151-182.
Leow, R. (2001). Do learners notice enhanced forms while interacting with the L2? An online and offline study of the role of written input enhancement in L2 reading. Hispania, 84(3), 496-509. https://doi.org/10.2307/3657810.
Leow, R., Egi, T., Nuevo, A., & Tsai, Y. (2003). The roles of textual enhancement and type of linguistic item in adult L2 learners’ comprehension and intake. Applied Language Learning, 13(2), 1-16.
Lewis, M. (1993). The lexical approach: The state of ELT and a way forward. Language Teaching Publications.
Lewis, M. (1996). Implications of a lexical view of language. In J. Willis & D. Willis (Eds.), Challenge and change in language teaching (pp. 10-16). Macmillan Heinemann.
Lightbown, P. M., & Spada, N. (1990). Focus-on-form and corrective feedback in communicative language teaching: Effects on second language learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 12(4), 429-448. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263100009517
Long, M. H. (1991). Focus on form: A design feature in language teaching methodology. In K. De Bot, R. B. Ginsberg & C. Kramsch (Eds.), Foreign language research in cross- cultural perspective (pp. 39-52). Benjamins.
Lynch, L. M. (2005). Grammar teaching: Implicit or explicit? http://ezinearticles.com/?Grammar-Teaching:-Implicit-orExplicit?&id=89342
MacWhinney, B. (1997). Implicit and explicit processes: Commentary. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19(2), 27-81. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263197002076.
Marin, L. M., & Halpern, D. F. (2011). Pedagogy for developing critical thinking in adolescents: Explicit instruction produces greatest gains. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 6(1), 1-13. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1016/j.tsc.2010.08.002.
Mashudi, M., Nurmansyah, A., Saenko, N. R., Nurjamin, A., & Sharifullina, S. R. (2022). The impact of English cultural awareness on Indonesian advanced EFL learners’ grammar knowledge. International Journal of Society, Culture & Language, 10(1), 99-108. http://dx.doi.org/10.22034/ijscl.2021.246709.
Mayer, R. E. (2004). Should there be a three-strikes rule against pure discovery learning? The case for guided methods of instruction. American Psychologist, 59(1), 14-19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.59.1.14.
Moeller, A. J., & Ketsman, O. (2010). Can we learn a language without rules? In M. Bloom & C. Gascoigne (Eds.), 2020 vision for 2010: Developing global competence (pp. 91-108). Johnson Litho Graphics.
Nahavandi, N., & Mukundan, J. (2013). The impact of textual input enhancement and explicit rule presentation on Iranian elementary EFL learners’ intake of simple past tense. English Language Teaching, 6(1), 92-102. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/elt.v6n1p92.
Namaziandost, E., Rezvani, E., & Polemikou, A. (2020). The impacts of visual input enhancement, semantic input enhancement, and input flooding on L2 vocabulary among Iranian intermediate EFL learners. Cogent Education, 7(1), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2020.1726606.
Nazari, N. (2013). The effect of implicit and explicit grammar instruction on learners’ achievements in receptive and productive modes. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 70, 156-162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.01.051.
Nierenberg, D. W. (1998). The challenge of “teaching” large groups of learners: Strategies to increase active participation and learning. The International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine, 28(1), 115-122. https://doi.org/10.2190/EF68-J848-LAH1-N8QL.
Norris, J. M., & Ortega, L. (2001). Does type of instruction make a difference? Substantive findings from a meta-analytic review. Language Learning, 51(1), 157-213. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-1770.2001.tb00017.x.
Nourdad, N., & Tim Aghayi, E. (2014). Focus on form in teaching passive voice of different tenses. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 98, 1400-1408. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.03.558.
Olorode, J. J. (2016). Effect of guided discovery learning method on students’ academic achievement in financial accounting in colleges of education in Ogun State (Unpublished M.Ed. Doctoral dissertation). Tai Solarin University of Education.
Oveidi, M., Sepehri, M., & Shafiee, S. (2022). Differential effects of input/output tasks on learning English collocations by Iranian EFL learners through the corpus-based instruction. Journal of Modern Research in English Language Studies, 9(4), 143-168. https://doi.org/10.30479/jmrels.2022.17054.20.
Overstreet, M. (1998). Text enhancement and content familiarity: The focus of learner attention. Spanish applied linguistics, 2(2), 229-258.
Overstreet, M. (2002). The effects of textual enhancement on second language learner reading comprehension and form recognition (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Illinois.
Permatasari, D., & Laksono, W. (2019). Exploring guided discovery learning: The effect on students’ integrated ability and self-regulated in Chemistry. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1233, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1233/1/012023.
Pratiwil, A. Y., Rusilowati, A., & Nugroho, S. E. (2021). The use of online learning science materials in guided discovery to enhance student independence. Educational Management, 1-11.
Qin, J. (2008). The effect of processing instruction and dictogloss tasks on acquisition of the English passive voice. Language Teaching Research,12(1), 61-82. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168807084494.
Rashtchi, M., & Etebari, F. (2018). Learning the English passive voice: A comparative study on input flooding and input enhancement techniques. International Linguistics Research, 1(1), 67-67. https://doi.org/10.30560/ilr.v1n1p67.
Robinson, P. (2001). Individual differences, cognitive abilities, aptitude complexes and learning conditions in second language acquisition. Second Language Research, 17(4), 368-392. https://doi.org/10.1177/026765830101700405
Rodriguez, A. G. (2009). Teaching grammar to adult English language learners: Focus on form. Center for Applied Linguistics.
Schmidt, R. (1990). The role of consciousness in second language learning. Applied Linguistics, 11, 129-158. https://doi.org/10.1093/APPLIN%2F11.2.129.
Schmidt, R. (1993). Consciousness, learning and interlanguage pragmatics. In G. Kasper & S. Blum-Kulka (Eds.), Interlanguage pragmatics (pp. 21-42). Oxford University Press.
Schmidt, R. (1994). Deconstructing consciousness in search of useful definitions for applied linguistics. AILA Review, 11, 11-26.
Schurz, A., & Coumel, M. (2020). Grammar teaching in ELT: A cross-national comparison of teacher-reported practices. Language Teaching Research,0(0), 1-26. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168820964137.
Scrivener, J. (1996). ARC: A descriptive model for classroom work on language. In J. Willis & D. Willis (Eds.), Challenge and change in language teaching (pp. 79-92). Macmillan Heinemann.
Sharwood Smith, M. (1991). Speaking to many minds: On the relevance of different types of language information for the learner. Second Language Research, 7(2), 118-132. https://doi.org/10.1177/026765839100700204.
Sharwood Smith, M. (1993). Input enhancement in instructed SLA: Theoretical bases. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 15(2), 165-179. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263100011943.
Shehadeh, A. (2005). Task-based language learning and teaching: Theories and applications. In C. Edwards & J. Willis (Eds.), Teachers exploring tasks in English language teaching (pp. 13–30). Palgrave.
Shimanskaya, E. (2018). On the role of input in second language acquisition: The case of French strong pronouns. Language Learning, 68(3), 780-812. https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12298.
Sik, K. (2014). Using inductive or deductive methods in teaching grammar to adult learners of English (Doctoral dissertation). http://earsiv.atauni.edu.tr/xmlui/bitstream/handle/123456789/1211/kübra_şık_tez.pdf?sequence=.
Simamora, R. E., Saragih, S., & Hasratuddin, A. (2019). Improving students’ Mathematical problem solving ability and self-efficacy through guided discovery learning in local culture context. International Electronic Journal of Mathematics Education, 14(1), 61-72. https://doi.org/10.12973/iejme/3966.
Skehan, P. (1998). A Cognitive approach to language learning. Oxford University Press.
Skehan, P. (2003). Focus on form, tasks, and technology. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 16(5), 391-411. https://doi.org/10.1076/call.16.5.391.29489
Spada, N. (1997). Form-focussed instruction and second language acquisition: A review of classroom and laboratory research. Language Teaching, 30(2), 73-87. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444800012799.
Spiro, R. J., & DeSchryver, M. (2009). Constructivism: When it’s the wrong idea and when it’s the only idea. In S. E. Tobias & T. M. Duffy (Eds.), Constructivist instruction: Success or failure? (pp. 106–123). Routledge.
Sulistiani, N. E., & Agustini, R. (2022). Improvement of student’s creative thinking skills by guided inquiry-based student worksheet in acid-base materials. Jurnal Pendidikan Kimia (JPKim), 14(3), 139-148. https://doi.org/10.24114/jpkim.v14i3.37396.
Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: Some roles of comprehensible input and comprehensible output in its development. In S. Gass & C. Madden (Eds.), Input in second language acquisition (pp. 235-253). Newbury House.
Terrell, T. (1981). The natural approach in bilingual education. In California State Department of Education (Ed.), Schooling and language minority students: A theoretical framework (pp. 117-46). Evaluation, Dissemination, and Assessment Center.
VanPatten, B., & Benati, A. G. (2015). Key terms in second language acquisition. Bloomsbury Publishing.
VanPatten. B., & Williams, J. (2007). Input processing in adult second language acquisition. In B. VanPatten, & J. Williams (Eds.), Theories in second language acquisition: An introduction (pp. 115–135). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers, Inc.
Westwood, P. S. (2008). What teachers need to know about teaching methods. Aust Council for Ed Research.
Williams, J. (1999). Memory, attention and inductive learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21(1), 1-48. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263199001011.
Williams, J., & Evans, J. (1998). What kind of focus and on which form? In C. Doughty & J. Williams (Eds.), Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (pp. 139-155). Cambridge University Press.
Willis, J. (1994). A Framework for task-based learning. Longman.
Wittrock, M. (1966). The learning-by-discovery hypothesis. In L. Shulman & E. Keisler (Eds.), Learning by discovery: A critical appraisal (pp. 33-75). Rand McNally.
Wong, W. (2003). Textual enhancement and simplified input: Effects on L2 comprehension and acquisition of non-meaningful grammatical form. Applied Language Learning, 13(2), 17-45.
Wong, W. (2005). Input enhancement: From theory and research to the classroom. McGraw-Hill.
Yazdani, H., & Sadeghi, M. (2022). A comparative study on the effects of digitally self-regulated and guided discovery learning instructions on EFL learners’ vocabulary acquisition. Applied Research on English Language,11(4), 25-46. https://doi.org/10.22108/are.2022.130942.1792.
Yu, M. (2013). Teaching grammar using focus on form approach in communicative language teaching for Korean middle school students (Master’s thesis). University of Wisconsin. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/10597911.pdf.
Zhou, Y. P. (1989). The Effect of explicit instruction on the acquisition of English grammatical structures by Chinese learners. CUHK Papers in Linguistics, 1, 70-104.
Zohar, A., & Dori, Y. J. (2003). Higher order thinking skills and low-achieving students: Are they mutually exclusive? The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 12(2), 145-181. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/S15327809JLS1202_1